Cultural Industries Theory - A1

Cultural Industries Theory was proposed by David Hesmondhalgh, which states that cultural industries companies try to minimize risks and maximize profits and audiences through vertical and horizontal integration. 

Risk is particularly high in the cultural industries because of the difficulty in predicting success, high production costs, low reproduction costs and the fact that media products are ‘public goods’ – they are not destroyed on consumption but can be further reproduced.

Key points:

• Vertical integration is when a company acquires another company operating in the production process of the same industry, takes control over one or more stages in the production or distribution of a product.
• Horizontal integration is when one company takes over another that operates at the same level in an industry or produce similar products => more products, resources and profit
• Companies format their cultural products through the use of popular stars, genres/formats and serials - create political debates as popular things are mostly stereotypes and Westernised.
• Large conglomerates now operate across a number of different cultural industries, media platforms and technologies - media output diversification
• Media convergence simply refers to the merging of different types of mass media such as Traditional Media, Print Media, Broadcast Media, New Media and the Internet as well as portable and highly interactive technologies through digital media platforms.
• Companies control the release schedule of their products to maximize profit. For example, they would release a movie at the same time all over the world => avoid being privated and losing profit so people couldn't get hold of them for free online. They may also hold up products to make them seem rare and exclusive, then later release them across all media for people who couldn't get hold of them initially to rush out and purchase the products.
• The potential of the internet has been contained to some extent by its partial cooperation into a large and profit-oriented set of cultural industries. 
• Cultural industries companies have detailed marketing campaigns and techniques such as promoting their products through posters, social media platforms, online websites, guerilla marketing, etc. 

How have the producers of Stranger Things used genre conventions to make a more innovative product? 

 

Large conglomerates often rely on repetition through the use of stars, genres, franchises, repeatable narratives in order to minimize risk and maximize profit. Therefore, media products use star names and conform to genre conventions to produce safe products which can be sold to an audience successfully as they depend on big hits in the past and make some changes to them to be more innovative. 

Stranger Things is a television series that reused common tropes and genre conventions from other successful films. The producers created it as a homage to the 1980s, including many repeated scenes and ideas from 80s films such as The Extra-Terrestrial, The Shining and Stand by Me. The series is considered a pastiche, an artistic work in a style that imitates that of another work, artist, or period. For example, there are many links between Stranger Things and E.T. such as comparing eleven to the alien through the use of similar shots and comparison of storylines. By using intertextual references and cynical capitalize on nostalgia effectively, the producers can create a much more innovative and unique product despite doing the same thing as many do. In this day and age, people usually communicate and understand one another through pop culture, which includes cultural products that are dominant and famous during a time period consumed by the majority of a society's population. For instance, Stranger Things uses 80s pop culture metaphors to communicate with the audience and give them a communal language as well as a sense of familiarity. The intertextual references also help to frame how the viewers understand the characters.  

To make the series stand out and different from its references and inspirations, the producers had to embrace and understand the genre conventions and franchises, but then twist them in new ways. Stranger Things takes the most familiar and well-known elements of 80s films and character archetypes that audiences can easily find in other movies of the same genre, however, making changes, elaborating on arguments and inviting comparisons can make the series seem original. Even though the series follows the movie The Extra-Terrestrial closely, it makes swerve away from what the original did and overthrows the precursor. The directors did similar things based on 80s films but even better them, to the point that the consumers think the original work was influenced by Stranger Things. It manages to become one of the most popular science fictions shows and a part of the pop culture itself, even if the viewers have not watched the films that were referenced in the series. This will help the producers gain profit and avoid risks to their business as the production costs will be lower and it will be much easier to predict its success. 

To conclude, media companies maximize profit and minimize risk by creating products that are safe.  They use star names, common genre conventions and intertextuality, which will guarantee the product will be successful, as similar products have been in the past, otherwise they could lose a lot of money. However, they must add their own spin on the products in order to appear original. 

Social Learning Theory - A1

Social Learning Theory was proposed by Albert Bandura, which emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. 

The theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behaviour.

Key points:

• An audience can be influenced by media products which can lead to copycat behaviour. For example, watching a violent film can make someone act in a violent manner.
• The media can influence people directly – human values, judgement and conduct can be altered directly by media modelling. Media representations of aggressive or violent behaviour can lead to imitation.
• Empirical evidence best supports direct influence rather than the alternative models of media effects: two-step flow, agenda-setting, no effects, or the media reflecting existing attitudes and behaviour.
• The media may influence directly or by social networks, so people can be influenced by media messages without being exposed to them. 
• Different media have different effects and the ‘new’ media offer opportunities for self-directedness.

To what extent have producers encoded meanings within their products and which actions would they wish their audience to take? 

 

According to Bandura Social Learning Theory, an audience can be influenced by media products which can lead to copycat behaviour. Therefore, producers often encode meanings that they want into media texts, hoping the audience would decode the intended message. 

The Daily Telegraph’s headline informs the audience that Boris Johnson will introduce a points-based system to control the number of unskilled immigrants. The producers encode a message that there should be strict requirements for migrants before coming to the UK. While getting a grip on migration is important to prevent its negative effects, the editors suggest that foreigners are causing problems and creating a bad image of immigrants. Additionally, they wanted to assure that the UK could still manage immigration without the EU as they are leaving. When encoding this meaning, they want the readers to agree with the new policy to be able to ’restore faith’ in immigration control. They also wish their audience to believe in the government as they ensure that this issue will be properly dealt with.  

The article next to the lead story notifies the audience about the scandal of recyclable waste being incinerated. Despite residents sorting waste into separate bins, it is revealed that the recycling centre is actually burning them after an undercover investigation by The Daily Telegraph and Greenpeace’s Unearthed.  The editors encode that the recycling centre in London is not doing their work properly and harming the environment. They are also raising awareness and launching a campaign to increase recycling rates, which is a positive message. Moreover, they include data showing the number of house waste being sent for recycling and some are rejected. This will anger the readers who recycle their wastes at home since they try their best to protect the environment while the recycling facility is doing the opposite. When the editors encode the meaning, they wish that the audience will be aware of this issue, disagree with the recycling centre’s waste management and support their campaign. 

In the News category, an article about rape victims is written. The editors encode a message that the people who are raped ‘have to behave like saints’ and are often treated as complainants rather than victims. A positive message is encoded as they include a report from a victims’ commissioner, stating that rape victims’ personal lives are trawled thoroughly for any misdemeanour which is one of the reasons why they don’t report sex crimes to the police. The strong use of language and criticizing tone of the article will cause debates and disagreement among readers with the myth and stereotypes created by society. When encoding this message, the editors hope that the audience will have empathy for rape victims and treat them with respect. They also want readers to challenge society’s stereotypes, give them the right to privacy and bring justice to the victims. 

 

The Big Issue’s main cover line suggests that the audience will fall asleep reading this magazine. As The Big Issue newspaper was launched in response to the growing number of rough sleepers on the streets, the editors encode a positive message that the readers, especially homeless people, can peacefully sleep at night without worrying about anything if they buy their street newspaper. Particularly, they encode that The Big Issue will help to dismantle poverty by creating opportunity, through self-help, social trading and business solutions. When encoding meanings to the main cover line, the producers want to ensure that they will give the readers effective solutions and methods to their problems. They also hope that their audience members will be more assured and trust the newspaper as they promise to offer homeless people, or individuals at risk of homelessness, the opportunity to earn a legitimate income. 

The first cover line on the right column discusses the questionable ethics of homeless safari. Society may view the homeless as troublesome or not see them at all. Therefore, the editors encode a positive message as they identify ethical issues that should be explored and recognize that the homeless are a fragile population and proceed with care. They wish that the audience, especially homeless people who travel around, will be interested in this topic since many of them might have been discriminated against or experienced situations that make them question moral values. The Big Issue editors want to show their readers that they care and will have ethical considerations of the homeless. They hope that the audience will support their newspaper since their products discuss issues that a lot of homeless people may ponder or find relatable. 

The second cover line feature Fiona Shaw, an Irish actress, talking about the two movies (‘Fleabag’ and ‘Killing Eve’), directed by Phoebe Waller-Bridge, that she acted in. Phoebe is a young famous English actress, writer and television producer and was one of the 100 most influential people in the world. Fiona Shaw then talks about working with her and why she thinks it’s about time for the new generation to rise up and take over. The editors encode a positive, encouraging and empowering message that young people are capable of doing incredible things, such as directing and producing media products. After encoding meanings into this cover line, they hope that their audience members will not give up as they have the potential to make money and afford their cost of living.